Mostrando entradas con la etiqueta PRESIDENT BARACK OBAMA. Mostrar todas las entradas
Mostrando entradas con la etiqueta PRESIDENT BARACK OBAMA. Mostrar todas las entradas

viernes, 29 de julio de 2016

BBC Mundo Noticias : El secreto detrás de los celebrados discursos de Barack y Michelle Obama

    http://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-internacional-36917847
Barack Obama durante la Convención Demócrata de 2004.
Image copyright AFP
Image caption
                                    Barack Obama durante la Convención Demócrata de 2004, en la que endosó a John Kerry.
Hace 12 años, un Barack Obama desconocido para la mayoría de los estadounidenses subió al podio de la Convención Demócrata en Boston para pronunciar el discurso central.
Obama era entonces solo un candidato a senador de Estados Unidos, pero los 18 minutos que duró su discurso fueron tan memorables que hoy se considera el momento inaugural de su rápido camino hacia la Casa Blanca.
"No hay un Estados Unidos liberal y un Estados Unidos conservador: hay un Estados Unidos de América", dijo.
"No hay un Estados Unidos negro y un Estados Unidos blanco, latino o asiático: hay un Estados Unidos de América", siguió, utilizando las fórmulas de repetición tan características de sus discursos.
Obama y Hillary Clinton en la Convención Demócrata de 2016.
Image copyright AFP
Image caption
                                    12 años más tarde, Obama volvió a utilizar todo su oratoria para lanzar la campaña de Hillary Clinton.
Este miércoles, 12 años y dos periodos presidenciales después, Obama volvió a la Convención Demócrata para apoyar a Hillary Clinton en su carrera por la Casa Blanca contra el republicano Donald Trump.
 
 
Y al igual que entonces, pero con más canas y la autoridad de ser el presidente de Estados Unidos, logró levantar al público con su poderosa y emotiva oratoria.

Orador en jefe

Obama es el "orador en jefe" de Estados Unidos, le dice a BBC Mundo David Kusnet, quien entre 1992 y 1994 fue jefe del equipo de discursos del entonces presidente Bill Clinton.
Y una de las claves de su éxito es la forma en que inserta sus discursos dentro de la tradición retórica de Estados Unidos, conectando con el público porque sabe hablarle en su mismo idioma.
Y ese idioma no es el inglés, sino el "estadounidense", afirma Kusnet.
 
 
"Obama es un orador más elevado que George W. Bush y tiene un estilo menos improvisado que Bill Clinton", explica este experto en discursos.
Pero una de las claves de su éxito es el uso que hace del lenguaje, coloquial e informal, en la tradición de grandes escritores estadounidenses como Mark Twain o Ernest Hemingway.
Simpatizantes de Obama durante la celebración de su victoria en 2008.
Image copyright Getty Images
Image caption
                                    Simpatizantes de Obama durante la celebración de su victoria en 2008.
El presidente habla estadounidense, y no solo por el lenguaje, sino por sus continuas referencias a los valores de Estados Unidos y a los documentos fundacionales de la nación, como la Constitución y la Declaración de Independencia.
"Su estilo contrasta con el de Donald Trump, quien en su discurso de aceptación de la candidatura republicana no hizo ninguna referencia a nadie, salvo a sí mismo", según Kusnet.

Infancia y juventud

No hay una sola clave que explique el éxito de los discursos de Barack y de la primera dama, Michelle, quien logró conmover a la audiencia con su alocución de apertura de la convención, el pasado lunes.
Donald Trump
Image copyright Getty Images
Image caption
                                    El estilo discursivo de Obama es radicalmente diferente al de Donald Trump.
El discurso de Michelle fue emotivo y muy personal, construido sobre la imagen de los Obama como buenos padres y modelo a seguir para los niños de Estados Unidos.
Y al igual que Barack, Michelle logra hablar para que la entiendan la mayoría de los estadounidenses, algo que no es tan común como pudiera parecer.
"Su discurso en la convención demócrata era entendible para el 80% de los estadounidenses", le dice a BBC Mundo Robert Lehrman, quien fue jefe de discursos de Al Gore entre 1993 y 1995, cuando éste era vicepresidente.
"Y eso es mucho", afirma Lehrman, que utiliza herramientas para medir la legibilidad de los textos y da clases de escritura de discursos en la American University, en Washington DC.

Los Obama
Image copyright AP
Image caption
                                    Los Obama hablan para la mayoría. 
               
Barack y Michelle Obama haciendo campaña en 2004.
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Image caption
                                    Barack y Michelle Obama haciendo campaña en 2004.
La retórica de los Obama está fuertemente anclada en sus experiencias de juventud, desde el trabajo de organizador comunitario de Barack, en Chicago, hasta la infancia de clase trabajadora de Michelle.
Los discursos de Barack, en especial los de campaña, con sus grandes eslóganes como "Yes, we can" ("Sí, podemos"), recuerdan también a los movimientos sociales de la década de 1960 y su base religiosa.
"Al igual que Bill Clinton, cuando habla parece que lo hace desde un púlpito", explica Kuset.
Sus alocuciones tienen con frecuencia la estructura de un sermón: empieza encontrando puntos en común con la audiencia, para luego plantearles un reto y finalmente terminar llevándolos a un lugar mejor que el del inicio
 
Bill Clinton
Image copyright AFP
Image caption
                                    Cuando Obama habla, al igual que Bill Clinton, parece que lo hace desde un púlpito.
En el caso de Michelle, a menudo utiliza historias de su infancia en Chicago para remarcar la grandeza del sueño americano.
Su historia es la historia del país, quiere trasmitir la primera dama, como hizo en su emotiva intervención en la convención demócrata.
"La historia que me ha traído a este escenario hoy, es la historia de generaciones de personas que sintieron el último latigazo de la esclavitud, la vergüenza de la servidumbre, el aguijón de la segregación, pero que siguieron luchando y esperando y haciendo lo que tenían que hacer para que hoy, yo me despierte cada día en una casa construida por esclavos", dijo.

 

Con un poco de ayuda

Sin dudar del mérito que los Obama tienen en cautivar a las audiencias, hay unos protagonistas de esta historia que son menos conocidos, pero no menos importantes: los escritores de discursos.
Michelle Obama dando un discurso.
Image copyright Getty Images
Image caption
                                    Michelle Obama dando un discurso.
Hace décadas de que los presidentes de Estados Unidos no escriben (al menos no totalmente) sus propios discursos.
"Cuando trabajaba con Al Gore, quizás una vez a la semana hablábamos de un discurso, de lo que quería decir. El resto simplemente los escribía yo y él los pronunciaba", cuenta Lehrman.
Los escritores de discursos son los encargados de capturar los valores, las prioridades y las frases bandera de los políticos y reflejarlos en los discursos.
En el caso de Michelle Obama, su jefa de discursos es Sarah Hurwitz.
"Mientras escribo algo para ella, voy editando el discurso con su voz en mi cabeza, porque me ha hecho tantos comentarios a lo largo de los años y ha sido tan clara sobre lo que quiere", le dijo Hurwitz recientemente al diario The Washington Post.

Michelle Obama dando un discurso.
Image copyright Getty Images
Image caption
                                    Sarah Hurwitz es la autora de los discursos de la primera dama.
"Los escritores de discursos de Obama son excepcionales", afirma Lehrman.
Lo mismo opina Dennis Glover, escritor de discursos profesional y profesor de la Universidad de Melbourne, Australia.
Glover cree que las arengas del presidente destacan por su gran técnica y por un uso brillante del lenguaje poético y las repeticiones.
"Pero una gran parte del éxito tiene que ver también con la práctica", le dice Glover a BBC Mundo.

Obama
Image copyright Justin Sullivan
Image caption
                                    Los Obama tienen mucha práctica en dar discursos.
Los Obama saben escuchar y repetir lo que funciona.
En Estados Unidos, además, un político no puede llegar a la cima sin ser como mínimo un decente orador, algo que no es así en muchos otros países.
Pero no todo el mundo está de acuerdo en que los discursos de los Obama son especialmente buenos.
Charles Crawford, exembajador de Reino Unido en distintos países y experto en escritura de discursos, los califica de "oportunidades perdidas".
"Los Obama tienen buena imagen, confianza en sí mismos y cierta autoridad", le dice Crawford a BBC Mundo.
Pero si se analiza "la sustancia" de los discursos, "empiezan a disolverse".
"Barack Obama es bueno estableciendo un tono y haciendo campaña, pero no hablando de medidas políticas específicas. ¿Quién se acuerda de alguna idea o frase interesante que haya dicho?", se pregunta Crawford.
Pero después de la Convención Demócrata de esta semana en Filadelfia, esta no parece ser la opinión mayoritaria en los medios y las redes sociales.

Contenido relacionado


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viernes, 25 de diciembre de 2015

NSF : President Obama honors nation's leading scientists and innovators .- El presidente Obama honra a los principales científicos e innovadores de la nación

Hola amigos: A VUELO DE UN QUINDE EL BLOG., La Casa Blanca anunció hoy los últimos beneficiarios de la Medalla Nacional de la Ciencia y la Medalla Nacional de Tecnología e Innovación - los más altos honores de la nación para el logro y el liderazgo en la promoción de los campos de la ciencia y la tecnología. Los nuevos galardonados recibirán sus medallas en una ceremonia en la Casa Blanca a principios del próximo año.
"La ciencia y la tecnología son fundamentales para resolver algunos de los desafíos más grandes de nuestra nación", dijo el presidente Obama. "El conocimiento producido por estos americanos hoy llevar legado de innovación de nuestro país hacia adelante y seguir ayudando a muchos otros en todo el mundo. Su trabajo es una prueba de ingenio americano."
More information.............

Barack Obama is the 44th President of the United States. His story is the American story -- values from the heartland, a middle-class upbringing in a strong family, hard work and education as the means of getting ahead, and the conviction that a life so blessed should be lived in service to others.
 
Barack Obama es el 44º presidente de los Estados Unidos. Su historia es la historia de América - valores del corazón, una educación de clase media en una familia fuerte, el trabajo duro y la educación como medio para salir adelante, y la convicción de que una vida tan bendecida debe ser vivida en el servicio a los demás.
 
With a father from Kenya and a mother from Kansas, President Obama was born in Hawaii on August 4, 1961. He was raised with help from his grandfather, who served in Patton's army, and his grandmother, who worked her way up from the secretarial pool to middle management at a bank.
 
Con un padre de Kenia y una madre de Kansas, el presidente Obama nació en Hawai el 4 de agosto de 1961. Se crió con la ayuda de su abuelo, que sirvió en el ejército de Patton, y su abuela, que trabajó su manera para arriba de la secretaría piscina para los mandos medios en un banco.

More information..........
https://search.usa.gov/search?affiliate=nsf&query=President+Obama&x=10&y=6

Nearly all awardees received NSF support during careers

medal
The National Medal of Science is the nation's highest scientific honor.
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December 22, 2015
The White House today announced the latest recipients of the National Medal of Science and National Medal of Technology and Innovation -- the nation's highest honors for achievement and leadership in advancing the fields of science and technology. The new awardees will receive their medals at a White House ceremony early next year.
"Science and technology are fundamental to solving some of our Nation's biggest challenges," President Obama said. "The knowledge produced by these Americans today will carry our country's legacy of innovation forward and continue to help countless others around the world. Their work is a testament to American ingenuity."
The National Medal of Science was created by statute in 1959 and is administered for the White House by the National Science Foundation (NSF). Awarded annually, the Medal recognizes individuals who have made outstanding contributions to science and engineering. The President receives nominations from a committee of Presidential appointees based on their extraordinary knowledge in and contributions to chemistry, engineering, computing, mathematics, and the biological, behavioral/social and physical sciences.
Among this year's nine recipients of the National Medal of Science, seven received NSF support at some point in their research careers.
The National Medal of Technology and Innovation was created by statute in 1980 and is administered for the White House by the U.S. Department of Commerce's Patent and Trademark Office. The award recognizes those who have made lasting contributions to America's competitiveness and quality of life and helped strengthen the Nation's technological workforce. A distinguished independent committee representing the private and public sectors submits recommendations to the President.
Six of the eight National Medal of Technology and Innovation awardees have received NSF funding.
The new recipients are listed below.
National Medal of Science
National Medal of Technology and Innovation
  • Joseph DeSimone, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina State University, and Carbon3D
  • Robert Fischell, University of Maryland at College Park
  • Arthur Gossard, University of California, Santa Barbara
  • Nancy Ho, Green Tech America Inc. and Purdue University
  • Chenming Hu, University of California, Berkeley
  • Mark Humayun, University of Southern California
  • Cato T. Laurencin, University of Connecticut
  • Jonathan Rothberg, 4catalyzer Corporation and Yale School of Medicine
-NSF-
Media Contacts Sarah Bates, NSF, (703) 292-7738,
Program Contacts Sherrie Green, NSF, (703) 292-8040,
Related WebsitesNSF National Medal of Science home:
 http://www.nsf.gov/od/nms/medal.jsp
National Medals of Science and Technology Foundation:
 http://nationalmedals.org/
Medal of Science fact sheet:
 http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100684
NSF National Medals of Science 50th Anniversary Website:
 http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/medalofscience50/
President Obama to Honor Nation’s Leading Scientists and Innovators:
The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent federal agency that supports fundamental research and education across all fields of science and engineering. In fiscal year (FY) 2015, its budget is $7.3 billion. NSF funds reach all 50 states through grants to nearly 2,000 colleges, universities and other institutions. Each year, NSF receives about 48,000 competitive proposals for funding, and makes about 11,000 new funding awards. NSF also awards about $626 million in professional and service contracts yearly.
 Get News Updates by Email 
Useful NSF Web Sites:
NSF Home Page:
http://www.nsf.gov
NSF News:
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Science and Engineering Statistics:
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Awards Searches:
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The National Science Foundation (NSF)
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miércoles, 23 de julio de 2014

NASA : President Obama Meets With Crew of Apollo 11

¡Extra! ¡Extra! ¡El hombre ha pisado la Luna!

Así recogió la prensa escrita los días previos y posteriores a la llegada a nuestro satélite la hazaña de la misión Apolo 11, y el momento histórico en el que los astronautas de la NASA aterrizaron en la Luna por primera vez

https://www.nationalgeographic.com.es/llegada-del-hombre-a-la-luna/extra-extra-el-hombre-ha-pisado-luna_14539/1



President Obama Meets With Crew of Apollo 11
President Barack Obama meets with Apollo 11 astronauts Michael Collins, seated left, Buzz Aldrin, Carol Armstrong, widow of Apollo 11 commander, Neil Armstrong, NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, and Patricia “Pat” Falcone, OSTP Associate Director for National Security and International Affairs, far right, Tuesday, July 22, 2014, in the Oval Office of the White House in Washington, during the 45th anniversary week of the Apollo 11 lunar landing.
Image Credit: NASA/Bill Ingalls
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jueves, 24 de abril de 2014

NASA : President Obama Hears From Astronauts on Space Station


President Obama Hears From Astronauts on Space Station
President Barack Obama and astronaut Soichi Noguchi hear a message from International Space Station astronauts Steve Swanson, Koichi Wakata and Rick Mastracchio at Miraikan, national museum for emerging science and innovation on April 24, 2014 in Tokyo, Japan. President Obama is on an Asian tour where he is due to visit Japan, South Korea, Malaysia and Philippines.
Image Credit: The Asahi Shimbun via Getty Images
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viernes, 18 de abril de 2014

nsf.gov - National Science Foundation - Early Career Scientists and Engineers receive highest honor from the White House

Twenty NSF-funded scientists recognized for strengthening America's scientific enterprise
President Obama talks with PECASE recipients at the White House.
President Obama talks with PECASE recipients at the White House.
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April 16, 2014
On Monday, 102 men and women received the United States government's highest honor for scientists and engineers in the early stages of their independent research careers--the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE). The National Science Foundation (NSF) nominated 20 of the awardees.
They received their awards from NSF Director France Córdova at a morning ceremony presided over by John P. Holdren, assistant to the president for science and technology and director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy.
The awardees come from universities around the country and excel in research in a variety of scientific disciplines: biology, computer and information sciences, education and human resources, geosciences, the physical sciences including mathematics, chemistry, physics and materials research, engineering and social, behavioral and economic sciences.
"The PECASE awardees embody America's high priority of producing outstanding scientists and engineers to advance the nation's goals, tackle grand challenges and contribute to all sectors of the economy," said NSF Director France Córdova. "I salute the creativity, ingenuity, dedication and generosity of this year's PECASE winners. I commend them for shouldering the responsibilities to inspire and mentor the next generation and to help America sustain global leadership in science and technology."
All NSF PECASE awardees are from a pool of individuals whose research has been vetted by NSF's rigorous peer review process and have received five-year grants from the Faculty Early Career Development (CAREER) Program. CAREER awardees have proven themselves exemplary in integrating research and education within the context of the mission of their organization and selection is highly competitive: 20 percent or 525 of the nearly 2,600 CAREER award applicants were funded in 2012. Of those, just shy of 4 percent were PECASE winners, the cream of the crop.
The Office of Science and Technology Policy within the Executive Office of the President coordinated the awards, which were established by President Clinton in February 1996. Awardees are selected on the basis of two criteria: pursuit of innovative research at the frontiers of science and technology and a commitment to community service as demonstrated through scientific leadership, public education or community outreach.
This year's NSF recipients are:
 
Theodor Agapie, California Institute of Technology
For the creative design of model complexes for active sites that catalyze the formation and cleavage of O-O bonds relevant to alternative-energy and sustainability; exemplary teaching, mentoring and outreach activities; and a commitment to increase participation of underrepresented groups in science.
 
Javier Arce-Nazario, University of Puerto Rico, Cayey
For ambitious interdisciplinary research advancing the frontiers of sustainability science related to water issues in extreme climate conditions, and for direct involvement in bringing science into the homes of Puerto Rican people in rural areas of the La Plata watershed.
 
Sarah Bergbreiter, University of Maryland, College Park
For designing and fabricating ant-scale microrobots with the ability to navigate on rough terrain in order to deepen our understanding of insect biomechanics and locomotion, and for work to increase participation in this field of research.
 
Moises A. Carreon, Colorado School of Mines
For fundamental research aimed at developing a novel family of crystalline porous membranes for carbon dioxide capture, and for international collaboration and minority student recruitment.
Sigrid Close, Stanford University
 
For profound discoveries related to the effects of meteoroid impacts on the atmosphere and spacecraft, and for extraordinary informal science education and outreach efforts to bring space science to K-12 students and to the general public.
 
Raffaella De Vita, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University
For outstanding research into female pelvic floor disorders based on engineering-based knowledge on the structural and mechanical properties of associated supporting tissues.
 
Abigail Doyle, Princeton University
For the development of innovative approaches to incorporating fluorine into organic compounds, impacting synthetic and medicinal chemistry and chemi­cal biology, and for mentoring young scientists, broadening participation in STEM disciplines and engaging middle-school teachers and community college students.
 
Daniel I. Goldman, Georgia Institute of Technology
For dynamic, multi-disciplinary studies of the neuromechanics of locomotion on granular substrates, and for the creative use of robots to generate interest in and teach the principles of science to students, teachers and the public.
 
Joel Griffitts, Brigham Young University
For creative experimental approaches to studying the molecular negotiations between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and their plant hosts that allow productive symbiotic associations to arise, and for the Symbiosis Learning Consortium that brings undergraduates and high-school students into the research effort as key participants.
 
Samantha Hansen, University of Alabama
For innovative research that will provide critical constraints on the geodynamic evolution of the Antarctic continent as well as information to better constrain evolution of the Antarctic ice sheets, and for developing novel approaches to introduce underrepresented students to the geosciences.
 
Jeffrey D. Karpicke, Purdue University
For innovative contributions at the intersection of cognitive science and education to advance our understanding of learning and memory, for applying those insights to practical challenges in science classrooms and for ensuring that classroom teachers learn from these scientific findings. (Also nominated by the Department of Education.)
 
Rouslan Krechetnikov, University of California, Santa Barbara
For outstanding work combining applied mathematics, analytical mechanics and challenging experimental and theoretical fluid mechanics including geo­physics, micro-hydrodynamics and physics of complex interfaces.
 
Tamara J. Moore, Purdue University
For transformative research on how young students learn engineering concepts and how to integrate those practices into K-12 teacher development in order to have a transformative impact on underrepresented minority and underprivileged urban K-12 students.
 
Daniela A. Oliveira, Bowdoin College
For pioneering disruptive approaches to cybersecurity that are enabling transformative solutions to serious financial and economic threats, and for novel outreach activities that successfully encourage the participation of underrepresented groups in cybersecurity-related research issues.
 
Jonathan W. Pillow, The University of Texas at Austin
For foundational advances in probabilistic methods for understanding how populations of neurons encode and process information, and for leadership in education and broadening participation in computational neuroscience and related fields.
 
Benjamin Recht, University of California, Berkeley
For visionary research on scalable computational tools for large-scale data analysis and machine learning, and for initiating paradigm shifts in several related disciplines with enormous scientific and societal impact.
 
David Savitt, University of Arizona
For work on the p-adic Langlands program and generalizations of Serre's modularity conjecture, and for educational activities including organizing the high-school summer program Canada/USA Mathcam, running graduate workshops, and helping students from underrepresented groups reach their full potential.
 
Noah Snavely, Cornell University
For innovative research in developing new computer-vision algorithms for scalable 3-D reconstruction; camera location estimation from diverse unknown cameras; and innovations in STEM education.
 
Junqiao Wu, University of California, Berkeley
For leading-edge research on nanomaterials with phase transitions, and for creating a comprehensive program to educate students and the general public about science and nanotechnology.
 
Ahmet Yildiz, University of California, Berkeley
For developing state-of-the-art single-molecule approaches for visualization and quantitation of the behavior of molecular motors responsible for cellular traffic, and for outstanding outreach providing innovative educational and research activities to underrepresented groups at local charter high schools.
Note to regional reporters: For more information about, or interviews with, local winners of the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers, please contact the awardees' home institution or agency.
-NSF-
Media Contacts Lisa-Joy Zgorski, NSF, (703) 292-8311, lisajoy@nsf.gov
Program Contacts Mayra N. Montrose, NSF, (703) 292-4757, mmontros@nsf.gov
Related WebsitesCAREER and PECASE Information:
http://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=503214
Presidential Early Career Awards for Scientists and Engineers:
The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent federal agency that supports fundamental research and education across all fields of science and engineering. In fiscal year (FY) 2014, its budget is $7.2 billion. NSF funds reach all 50 states through grants to nearly 2,000 colleges, universities and other institutions. Each year, NSF receives about 50,000 competitive requests for funding, and makes about 11,500 new funding awards. NSF also awards about $593 million in professional and service contracts yearly.
Useful NSF Web Sites:
NSF Home Page:
 http://www.nsf.gov
NSF News:
http://www.nsf.gov/news/
For the News Media:
http://www.nsf.gov/news/newsroom.jsp
Science and Engineering Statistics:
NSF Director France Cordova and Deputy Director Cora Marrett met with 2014 PECASE awardees at NSF.
NSF Director France Córdova and Deputy Director Cora Marrett meet with 2014 PECASE awardees.
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NSF Director France Cordova addresses 2014 PECASE awardees at a gathering at NSF.
NSF Director France Córdova addresses 2014 PECASE awardees at a gathering at NSF.
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2014 PECASE awardee Jeffrey Karpicke meets with NSF's EHR Assistant Director Joan Ferrini-Mundy.
2014 PECASE awardee Jeffrey Karpicke meets with NSF's EHR Assistant Director Joan Ferrini-Mundy.
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PECASE awardees with CISE's Farnam Jahanian and Suzi Iaconno
Several 2014 PECASE awardees received CAREER Awards from NSF's CISE Directorate.
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The National Science Foundation (NSF)
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lunes, 17 de junio de 2013

nsf.gov - Prying Open the Black Box of the Brain


BRAIN is designed to finally reveal how the brain records, process, uses, stores, and retrieves vast volumes of information, all at the speed of thought.
Credit: Thinkstock

President Obama greets BRAIN Inititive event attendees, including Cora Marrett, Acting NSF Director.
President Obama greets BRAIN Inititive event attendees, including Cora Marrett, Acting NSF Director.
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Attendees at the BRAIN workshop at NSF
About 140 leading scientists from around the world attended NSF's BRAIN workshop.
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Poeple sitting in a circle at the NSF's BRAIN workshop
NSF's BRAIN workshop followed a lively, interactive format.
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John Wingfield
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Understanding the Brain with John Wingfield of NSF
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Graphic illustration containing the text unconvering the brain
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Understanding the BRAIN with Fleming Crim of NSF and Tom Insel of NIH
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The human brain is the most complex biological structure on Earth. It has about 100 billion neurons--each of which has thousands of connections to other neurons.
Moreover, brains change with time for a variety of reasons. For example, as we age, our brains lose nerve cells (neurons). In addition, the wiring of our brains is continually altered as we learn, socialize, undergo stress and encounter varied environmental conditions. That's right: Our brains are anatomically and physiologically changed by normal intellectual and physical experiences.
So each of us--continually subjected to new and different brain-changing experiences--has a unique brain. In fact, even the brains of identical twins differ from one another. What's more, brain injuries may trigger various types of changes in the anatomy and physiology of the brain to compensate for lost function and/or maximize remaining functions.
Largely because the brain is so complex and dynamic, it is still akin to a locked black box--three pounds of mystery lodged between our ears. Indeed, our understanding of the brain remains downright rudimentary compared to our understanding of other organs.

Desperately seeking a theory
Despite major technological advances in brain research during recent decades, scientists have yet to describe all of the various types of cells that comprise the brain and determine their functions. Complicating matters further, the brain is more than the sum of its parts. That is, the various components of the brain do not operate in isolation from one another; they must communicate with one another and work together to process information and produce memories, thoughts and behaviors.
But scientists still don't understand how information is processed in any organism, whether it be a lowly worm whose nervous system is comprised of only a few hundred neurons or a complex vertebrate. We simply do not know what happens in the brain when an organism thinks, maneuvers through the world, takes in sensory information or sleeps.
In other words, scientists lack a basic, overarching theory about healthy brain function that would explain how memories, thoughts and behaviors emerge from dynamic activities in the brain--any brain.
This theoretical vacuum has persisted even though molecular, cellular and neuronal activities in the brains of many species have been well studied, as has behavior in many species, including humans. Nevertheless, the relationships between these two types of phenomena and the sequence of events that translates one to the other remain mysterious.
By providing a framework for predicting how micro events in the brain produce behaviors, and vice-versa, a theory of healthy brain function would contribute as much to neuroscience as the theory of evolution contributes to the tree of life, the theory of plate tectonics contributes to geology and the theory of relativity contributes to cosmology.
But still unable to explain how a normal brain functions, scientists cannot yet explain how traumatic injuries and brain diseases, such as Alzheimer's, schizophrenia, autism, and epilepsy impair function. Nor can they determine how brain injuries and diseases should be treated. By comparison, imagine a mechanic trying to fix a car's engine without a parts list and/or understanding how it runs!
It is even difficult for scientists to so much as agree on which neurological variables should be studied. Such disagreement, however, would probably be reduced by a viable theory of healthy brain function because it would likely reveal particularly promising areas of future research. It could do so by, for example, helping scientists identify important neuronal nodes that warrant more attention than do thickets of rank-and-file neurons.

The new BRAIN Initiative
Responding to the need for a comprehensive understanding of the brain, President Obama launched the Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative on April 2, 2013. Led by the National Science Foundation (NSF), the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), BRAIN is a bold new research effort.
Extending beyond mere mapping of the brain, the BRAIN initiative is aimed at producing an array of tools that are needed to establish an integrated theory of how the healthy brain functions over an organism's life. This theory will provide a fundamental framework for interpreting new information on brain science and will change existing paradigms for explaining "who we are."
"When scientists do ultimately figure out how the brain works--however long it takes, this accomplishment will probably be considered the greatest scientific achievement in all of human history," said John Wingfield, NSF's Assistant Director for the Biological Sciences. 

NSF'S role in BRAIN
Brain processes are multidisciplinary phenomena, incorporating the principles of biology, chemistry, physics, engineering and mathematics. Therefore, efforts to understand these processes under BRAIN require multidisciplinary approaches. "The kinds of challenges we are facing in the study of neuroscience require contributions from a wide range of scientific and engineering disciplines," said Denise Caldwell, NSF's division director for Physics.
Needed basic research: Examples of the types of multidisciplinary advancements that are needed to advance BRAIN include:
  • Basic studies conducted by biologists, in collaboration with physicists, chemists, mathematicians and engineers, on the healthy functioning of the nervous systems of many types of species, from those with simple nervous systems to complex vertebrates--not just on humans and organisms that have traditionally served as model organisms in brain studies. Such studies would be based on a species comparative approach.
  • Theoretical and computational models created by physicists, mathematicians and computer scientists that will help reveal and predict complex neural activities in the healthy brain that drive thoughts and behavior.
  • New materials developed by materials scientists and engineers that are needed to create innovative types of brain probes that can be used to monitor and manipulate the brain.
  • Optical and electrical tools developed by physicists and engineers to better image the brain and brain activity.
NSF's key contributions: NSF is uniquely positioned to foster these and other types of needed innovations because the agency supports basic research across the scientific and engineering disciplines. What's more, NSF has already helped lay the groundwork for BRAIN by supporting many game-changing innovations in brain research, including the development of the following:
  • Optogenetics: A bioengeering technique that enables scientists to selectively turn on and off particular neurons and neuronal circuits in living organisms so that resulting behavioral changes can be observed in real time.

    Optogenetics is currently being used to help identify the functions of neurons and neuronal circuits and to help identify appropriate targets for drugs or technologies that address brain dysfunction. (See an NSF article about the contributions of optogenetics to research on Parkinson's disease and an NSF article on its contributions to research on anxiety.)

    A crucial prerequisite to the development of optogenetics was a discovery that was produced by research on a seemingly unrelated topic: algae. Specifically, this research identified the presence and molecular structure of light-sensitive proteins in algae. Turned on by light, these proteins help algae find light that is needed by the algae to produce energy through photosynthesis.

    After the light-sensitive algae proteins were discovered, brain researchers found that they could impart the brain neurons and neuronal circuits of various species with light sensitivity by inserting into them the light-sensitive algae proteins. Once made light sensitive, the neurons and circuits could be turned on merely by shining a light on them, and turned off by other types of simple light manipulations.

    The basics of optogenetics were thus developed. This pivotal application of algae research to neuroscience underscores the importance to BRAIN of NSF-funded basic research--including basic research in seemingly far-flung disciplines.
  • CLARITY: A new brain imaging technology, announced on April 10, 2013, that can be used to generate detailed, three-dimensional images of intact brains that highlight specific neuronal networks. These images can be produced without slicing the brain and disrupting its biochemistry, as previously required.
Potential applications of NSF-funded BRAIN research
By supporting additional multidisciplinary research under BRAIN, NSF will help produce a deep foundation of fundamental information of healthy brain function. This foundation will help reveal "how the car is designed, rather than just how it might be fixed." It may thereby open up entirely new avenues for NIH's research on brain diseases and DARPA's research on traumatic brain injuries.
This foundation may also offer applications to important issues that are unrelated to health. For example, this research may help explain differences in individual learning styles, reveal the origins of cultural mores, and provide insights into what makes people "tick" as individuals. It may also inspire the development of new "smart" technologies that mimic the information processing capabilities of the human brain.
NSF-funded BRAIN research may also help improve resource management. For example, this research may help scientists identify environmental conditions that promote the development of the nervous systems and metabolic systems of animals, such as fish and livestock. Resulting insights may help resource managers design aquaculture and livestock facilities to maximize the growth and productivity of their animals.
Brain studies may also help scientists figure out why many species of endangered vertebrates do not reproduce well in captivity--and explain why some species easily adapt to climate change, while other, closely related species cannot do so.
"We think that these [and other] phenomena are related to how an organism perceives its environment, which, in turn, is related to its brain function," said Wingfield. "Therefore, advancements in our basic understanding of the brain may have important implications for conservation and--by extension--our quality of life."

The kick-off of BRAIN: A meeting of the minds
NSF set the stage for producing such advancements by sponsoring the first BRAIN event: A workshop called, Physical and Mathematical Principles of Brain Structure and Function, which was held in Arlington, Va., on May 6 and 7, 2013.
The workshop drew 150 leading researchers from varied disciplines including physics, mathematics, and neurobiology. These researchers represented more than 60 institutions including NIH, DARPA, and other federal agencies; research institutions; academic journals; and the private sector.
Good timing: Physical and Mathematical Principles of Brain Structure and Function was fortuitously timed to tap into the sense of possibility generated by the coincidental release of CLARITY just weeks before the conference began, and by the recent development of optogenetics and various other new technologies for creating high-resolution images of brains with electron microscopes and for recording electrical impulses from brains.
"This conference was particularly timely because the community has realized that technologies for brain research have advanced to the point where we can now make a real leap in knowledge," said Caldwell.
Discussions about salient past and future multidisciplinary contributions to neuroscience also helped to generate an air of excitement, esprit de corps and sense of purpose at the workshop.
Developing research priorities: Various workshop activities, including presentations, break-out sessions and an invitation to participants to submit white papers, were designed to solicit input from participants on technical topics. These topics included important challenges in brain research, the types of computational approaches and tools that are most needed for advancing brain research, best practices for integrating data to produce knowledge, and methods for methods for incentivizing multidisciplinary brain research.
The workshop culminated with the development of consensus by participants on the following priorities for future neuroscience research:
  • Identifying signatures in neural activity that can be used to predict complex behaviors. These signatures may be identified through studies involving large-scale recordings from representative sets of neurons in multiple species and through high-resolution studies of neuro-anatomy in many species.
  • Developing theoretical and computational models that can be used to understand and analyze data produced by large-scale neural recordings.
  • Promoting unprecedented levels of international sharing of data on brain research and education. Doing so will involve developing standardized cyber tools and standards for data collection, analysis and integration--tasks that require solving complex "Big Data" problems.
"This initial set of over-arching priorities will set the stage for future detailed quantitative research," said Caldwell. "Results from this future research will drive advances in theoretical understanding that will, over the coming years, bring scientists closer to achieving the ultimate goal of understanding how the brain works and using this understanding to benefit human health."

For more information: 
 To learn more about the goals of the workshop and potential follow-up activities, view the two video interviews with NSF and NIH executives that accompany this article. And to access various resources produced by the BRAIN workshop, including white papers, videos of conference presentations and the conference agenda, visit the workshop's website.
--  Lily Whiteman, National Science Foundation (703) 292-8310 lwhitema@nsf.gov
--  Abby Deift, National Science Foundation (703) 292-4934 adeift@nsf.gov

  The National Science Foundation (NSF)
Guillermo Gonzalo Sánchez Achutegui
 ayabaca@gmail.com
ayabaca@hotmail.com
ayabaca@yahoo.com
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